Poland and Lithuania 1386–1434
Jogaila, later 
Władysław
II Jagiełło (help·info)[nb
1] (c.
1351/1362 – 1 June 1434) was Grand
Duke of Lithuania (1377–1434), King
of Poland (1386–1399)
alongside his wife Jadwiga,
and then sole King of Poland. He ruled in Lithuania from 1377. In 1386 in Kraków he
was baptized as Władysław,
married the young Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław
II Jagiełło.[1] In
1387 he converted
Lithuania to Christianity.
His own reign in Poland started in 1399, upon death of Queen Jadwiga, and
lasted a further thirty-five years and laid the foundation for the
centuries-long Polish–Lithuanian
union. He was the founder of the Jagiellonian
dynasty in Poland that bears
his name and was the heir to the already established house of Gediminids in
the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania. These royal dynasties ruled both states until 1572,[nb
2] and
became one of the most influential dynasties in the late medieval and early
modern Central and Eastern
Europe.[2] During
his reign, the Polish-Lithuanian state was the largest state in the
Christian world.[3]
Jogaila was the last pagan ruler
of medieval
Lithuania. After he became King of Poland, as a result of the Union
of Krewo, the newly formed Polish-Lithuanian union confronted the
growing power of the Teutonic
Knights. The allied victory at the Battle
of Grunwald in 1410, followed
by the Peace
of Thorn, secured the Polish and Lithuanian borders and marked the
emergence of the Polish–Lithuanian alliance as a significant force in
Europe. The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is
often considered the beginning of Poland's Golden
Age.
Early life[edit]
Lithuania[edit]
Little is known of
Jogaila's early life, and even his year of birth is not certain. Previously
historians assumed he was born in 1352, but some recent research suggests a
later date—about 1362.[4] He
was a descendant of the Gediminid dynasty and was probably born in Vilnius.
His parents were Algirdas,
Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife, Uliana,
daughter of Alexander
I, Grand Prince of Tver.
The Grand Duchy of
Lithuania to which Jogaila succeeded as Grand Duke in 1377 was a political
entity composed of two leading, but very different nationalities and two
political systems: ethnic Lithuania in the north-west and the vast Ruthenian territories
of former Kievan
Rus', comprising the lands of modern Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of
western Russia.[5] At
first, Jogaila—like his father—based his rule in the southern and eastern
territories of Lithuania, while his uncle, Kęstutis,
the Duke
of Trakai, continued to rule the north-western region.[nb
3] Jogaila's
succession, however, soon placed this system of dual rule under strain.[2]
At the start of his
reign, Jogaila was preoccupied with unrest in the Lithuanian Rus' lands. In
1377–78, Andrei
of Polotsk, the eldest son of Algirdas, challenged Jogaila's authority
and sought to become Grand Duke. In 1380, Andrei and another brother, Dmitry,
sided with Prince Dmitri
of Moscow against Jogaila's
alliance with emir Mamai,
de facto khan of the Golden
Horde.[6] Jogaila
failed to support Mamai, lingering in the vicinity of the battlefield, which
led to Mamai's army's significant defeat at the hands of Prince Dmitri in
the Battle
of Kulikovo. The Muscovites' Pyrrhic victory over the Golden Horde, in
the long term, signified, however, the beginning of a slow climb to power by
the Grand
Duchy of Moscow, which became within a century the most serious rival
and threat to the integrity, well-being and survival of Lithuania. However,
in 1380 Muscovy was greatly weakened by tremendous losses suffered during
the battle and thus, in the same year, Jogaila was free to begin a struggle
for supremacy with Kęstutis.
In the north-west,
Lithuania faced constant armed incursions from the Teutonic
Knights—founded after 1226 to fight and convert the pagan Baltic
tribes of Prussians, Yotvingians and Lithuanians.
In 1380, Jogaila secretly concluded the secret Treaty
of Dovydiškės, directed against Kęstutis.[2] When
Kęstutis discovered the plan, the Lithuanian
Civil War began. He seized
Vilnius, overthrew Jogaila, and pronounced himself grand duke in his place.[7] In
1382, Jogaila raised an army from his father's vassals and confronted
Kęstutis near Trakai. Kęstutis and his son Vytautas entered
Jogaila's encampment for negotiations but were tricked and imprisoned in the Kreva
Castle, where Kęstutis was found dead, probably murdered, a week later.[8] Vytautas
escaped to the Teutonic fortress of Marienburg and
was baptised there under the name Wigand.[7]
Jogaila formulated the Treaty
of Dubysa, which rewarded the Knights for their aid in defeating
Kęstutis and Vytautas by promising Christianisation and granting them Samogitia west
of the Dubysa river.
However, when Jogaila failed to ratify the treaty, the Knights invaded
Lithuania in the summer of 1383. In 1384, Jogaila reconciled with Vytautas
promising to return his patrimony in Trakai. Vytautas then turned against
the Knights,attacking and looting several Prussian castles.[9]
Baptism and marriage[edit]
Jogaila's Russian mother Uliana
of Tver urged him to marry
Sofia, daughter of Prince
Dmitri of Moscow, who required him first to convert to Orthodoxy.[nb
4] That
option, however, was unlikely to halt the crusades against Lithuania by the
Teutonic Knights, who regarded Orthodox
Christians as schismatics and
little better than heathens.[2][7] Jogaila
chose therefore to accept a Polish proposal to become a Catholic and
marry the eleven-year-old Queen Jadwiga
of Poland.[nb
5] The
nobles of Malopolska made
this offer to Jogaila for many reasons. They wanted to neutralize the
dangers posed by Lithuania itself and to secure the fertile territories of Galicia–Volhynia.[10] The
Polish nobles saw the offer as an opportunity for increasing their
privileges[11] and
avoiding Austrian influence, brought by Jadwiga's previous fiancé William,
Duke of Austria.[12]
On 14 August 1385 in Kreva
Castle, Jogaila confirmed his prenuptial promises in the Union
of Krewo (Union of Kreva).
The promises included the adoption of Christianity, repatriation of lands
"stolen" from Poland by its neighbours, and terras
suas Lithuaniae et Russiae Coronae Regni Poloniae perpetuo applicare, a
clause interpreted by historians to mean anything from a personal
union between Lithuania and
Poland to a complete incorporation of Lithuania into Poland.[13] The
agreement at Kreva has been described both as far-sighted and as a desperate
gamble.[nb
6]
Jogaila was duly
baptised at the Wawel
Cathedral in Kraków on
15 February 1386 and from then on formally used the name Władysław or Latin
versions of it.[14][nb
7] The
marriage took place three days later, and on 4 March 1386 Jogaila was
crowned King Władysław by archbishop Bodzanta.
He was also to be legally adopted by Jadwiga's mother, Elizabeth
of Bosnia, so retaining the throne in the event of Jadwiga's death.[7] The
royal baptism triggered the conversion of most of Jogaila's court and
noblemen, as well as mass baptisms in Lithuanian rivers,[15] a
beginning of the final Christianization
of Lithuania. Though the ethnic Lithuanian
nobility were the main
converts to Catholicism—both paganism and the Orthodox rite remained strong
among the peasants—the king's conversion and its political implications
created lasting repercussions for the history of both Lithuania and Poland.[15]
Ruler of
Lithuania and Poland[edit]
Władysław II Jagiello
and Queen Jadwiga reigned as co-monarchs; and though Jadwiga probably had
little real power, she took an active part in Poland's political and
cultural life. In 1387, she led two successful military expeditions to Red
Ruthenia, recovered lands her father Louis
I of Hungary had transferred
from Poland to Hungary, and secured the homage of Petru
I, Voivode of Moldavia.[16] In
1390, she also personally opened negotiations with the Teutonic Order. Most
political responsibilities, however, fell to Jagiello, with Jadwiga
attending to the cultural and charitable activities for which she is still
revered.[16]
Soon after Jagiello's
accession to the Polish throne, Jagiello granted Vilnius a
city charter like that of Kraków,
modeled on the Magdeburg
Law; and Vytautas issued a privilege to a Jewish commune of Trakai on
almost the same terms as privileges issued to the Jews of Poland in the
reigns of Boleslaus
the Pious and Casimir
the Great.[17] Władysław's
policy of unifying the two legal systems was partial and uneven at first but
achieved a lasting influence.[16] By
the time of the Union
of Lublin in 1569, there was
not much difference between the administrative and judicial systems in force
in Lithuania and Poland.[18]
One effect of Jagiello's
measures was to be the advancement of Catholics in Lithuania at the expense
of Orthodox elements; in 1387 and 1413, for example, Lithuanian Catholic
boyars were granted special judicial and political privileges denied to the
Orthodox boyars.[19] As
this process gained momentum, it was accompanied by the rise of both Rus'
and Lithuanian identity in the fifteenth century.[20]
Challenges[edit]
Jagiello's baptism
failed to end the crusade of
the Teutonic Knights, who claimed his conversion was a sham, perhaps even a
heresy, and renewed their incursions on the pretext that pagans remained
in Lithuania.[7][21] From
then on, however, the Order found it harder to sustain the cause of a
crusade and faced the growing threat to its existence posed by the Kingdom
of Poland and a genuinely Christian Lithuania alliance.[22][23] Władysław
sponsored the creation of the diocese
of Vilnius under bishop Andrzej
Wasilko, the former confessor of Elisabeth
of Hungary. The bishopric, which included Samogitia, then largely
controlled by the Teutonic Order, was subordinated to the see of Gniezno and
not to that of Teutonic Königsberg.[7] The
decision may not have improved Władysław's relations with the Order, but it
served to introduce closer ties between Lithuania and Poland, enabling the
Polish church to freely assist its Lithuanian counterpart.[15]
In 1389, Władysław's
rule in Lithuania faced a revived challenge from Vytautas, who resented the
power given to Skirgaila in
Lithuania at the expense of his own patrimony.[9] Vytautas
started a civil
war in Lithuania, aiming to become the Grand Duke. On 4 September 1390,
the joint forces of Vytautas and the Teutonic Grand Master, Konrad
von Wallenrode, laid siege to Vilnius, which was held by Władysław's
regent Skirgaila with combined Polish, Lithuanian and Ruthenian troops.[2] Although
the Knights lifted the siege of the castle after a month, they reduced much
of the outer city to ruins. This bloody conflict was eventually brought to a
temporary halt in 1392 with the Treaty
of Ostrów, by which Władysław handed over the government of Lithuania to
his cousin in exchange for peace: Vytautas was to rule Lithuania as the
Grand Duke (magnus dux) until his death, under the overlordship of
the Supreme Duke (dux supremus) in the person of the Polish monarch.[24] Skirgaila
was moved from the Duchy
of Trakai to become prince of
Kiev.[25] Vytautas
initially accepted his status but soon began to pursue Lithuania's
independence from Poland.[26][16]
The protracted period of
war between the Lithuanians and the Teutonic Knights was ended on 12 October
1398 by the Treaty
of Salynas, named after the islet in the Neman
River where it was signed.
Lithuania agreed to cede Samogitia and assist the Teutonic Order in a
campaign to seize Pskov,
while the Order agreed to assist Lithuania in a campaign to seize Novgorod.[16] Shortly
afterwards, Vytautas was crowned as a king by local nobles; but the
following year his forces and those of his ally, Khan Tokhtamysh of
the White
Horde, were crushed by the Timurids at
the Battle
of the Vorskla River, ending his imperial ambitions in the east and
obliging him to submit to Władysław's protection once more.[2][26]
King of Poland[edit]
On 22 June 1399, Jadwiga
gave birth to a daughter, baptised Elizabeth
Bonifacia; but within a month the mother and daughter died, leaving
Władysław sole ruler of the Kingdom of Poland and without an heir nor much
legitimacy to rule the kingdom. Jadwiga's death undermined Władysław's right
to the throne; and as a result old conflicts between the nobility of Lesser
Poland, generally sympathetic to Władysław, and the gentry of Greater
Poland began to surface. In
1402, Władysław answered the rumblings against his rule by marrying Anna
of Celje, a granddaughter of Casimir
III of Poland, a political match which re-legitimised his reign.
The Union
of Vilnius and Radom of 1401
confirmed Vytautas's status as grand duke under Władysław's overlordship,
while assuring the title of grand duke to the heirs of Władysław rather than
those of Vytautas: should Władysław die without heirs, the Lithuanian boyars were
to elect a new monarch.[27][28] Since
no heir had yet been produced by either monarch, the act's implications were
unforeseeable, but it forged bonds between the Polish and Lithuanian
nobility and a permanent defensive
alliancebetween the two states, strengthening Lithuania's hand for a new
war against the Teutonic Order in which Poland officially took no part.[26][22] While
the document left the liberties of the Polish nobles untouched, it granted
increased power to the boyars of Lithuania, whose grand dukes had till then
been unencumbered by checks and balances of the sort attached to the Polish
monarchy. The Union of Vilnius and Radom therefore earned Władysław a
measure of support in Lithuania.[16]
In late 1401, the new
war against the Order overstretched the resources of the Lithuanians, who
found themselves fighting on two fronts after uprisings in the eastern
provinces. Another of Władysław's brothers, the malcontent Švitrigaila,
chose this moment to stir up revolts behind the lines and declare himself
grand duke.[21] On
31 January 1402, he presented himself in Marienburg,
where he won the backing of the Knights with concessions similar to those
made by Jogaila and Vytautas during earlier leadership contests in the Grand
Duchy.[27]
Against the
Teutonic Order[edit]
Władysław II Jagiełło's royal seal
The war ended in the Treaty
of Raciąż on 22 May 1404.
Władysław acceded to the formal cession of Samogitia, and agreed to support
the Order's designs on Pskov;
in return, Konrad
von Jungingen undertook to
sell Poland the disputed Dobrzyń
Land and the town of Złotoryja,
once pawned to the Order by Władysław
Opolski, and to support Vytautas in a revived attempt on Novgorod.[27] Both
sides had practical reasons for signing the treaty at that point: the Order
needed time to fortify its newly acquired lands, the Poles and Lithuanians
to deal with territorial challenges in the east and in Silesia.
Also in 1404, Władysław
held talks at Vratislav with Wenceslaus
IV of Bohemia, who offered to return Silesia to Poland if Władysław
supported him in his power struggle within the Holy
Roman Empire.[29] Władysław
turned the deal down with the agreement of both Polish and Silesian nobles,
unwilling to burden himself with new military commitments in the west.[30]
Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic war[edit]
In December 1408,
Władysław and Vytautas held strategic talks in Navahrudak
Castle, where they decided to foment a Samogitian
uprising against Teutonic
rule to draw German forces away from Pomerelia.
Władysław promised to repay Vytautas for his support by restoring Samogitia
to Lithuania in any future peace treaty.[31] The
uprising, which began in May 1409, at first provoked little reaction from
the Knights, who had not yet consolidated their rule in Samogitia by
building castles; but by June their diplomats were busy lobbying Władysław's
court atOborniki,
warning his nobles against Polish involvement in a war between Lithuania and
the Order.[32] Władysław,
however, bypassed his nobles and informed new Grand Master Ulrich
von Jungingenthat if the Knights acted to suppress Samogitia, Poland
would intervene. This stung the Order into issuing a declaration of war
against Poland on 6 August, which Władysław received on 14 August inNowy
Korczyn.[32]
The castles guarding the
northern border were in such bad condition that the Knights easily captured
those at Złotoryja, Dobrzyń and Bobrowniki,
the capital of Dobrzyń Land, while German burghers invited them into Bydgoszcz (German:
Bromberg). Władysław arrived on the scene in late September, retook
Bydgoszcz within a week, and came to terms with the Order on 8 October.
During the winter, the two armies prepared for a major confrontation.
Władysław installed a strategic supply depot at Płock in Masovia and
had a pontoon
bridge constructed and
transported north down the Vistula.[33]
Meanwhile, both sides
unleashed diplomatic offensives. The Knights dispatched letters to the
monarchs of Europe, preaching their usual crusade against the heathens;[34] Władysław
countered with his own letters to the monarchs, accusing the Order of
planning to conquer the whole world.[35] Such
appeals successfully recruited many foreign knights to each side. Wenceslas
IV of Bohemia signed a
defensive treaty with the Poles against the Teutonic Order; his brother, Sigismund
of Luxembourg, allied himself with the Order and declared war against
Poland on 12 July, though his Hungarian vassals refused his call to arms.[36]
Battle of Grunwald[edit]
The Teutonic Order's castle at Marienburg
When the war resumed in
June 1410, Władysław advanced into the Teutonic heartland at the head of an
army of about 20,000 mounted nobles, 15,000 armed commoners, and 2,000
professional cavalry mainly hired from Bohemia. After crossing the Vistula
over the pontoon bridge at Czerwińsk,
his troops met up with those of Vytautas,
whose 11,000 light cavalry included Ruthenians and Tatars.[37] The
Teutonic Order's army numbered about 18,000 cavalry, mostly Germans and
5,000 infantry. On 15 July, at the Battle
of Grunwald (also known as
Battle of Tannenberg) after one of the largest and most ferocious battles of
the Middle Ages,[38] the
allies won a victory so overwhelming that the Teutonic Order's army was
virtually annihilated, with most of its key commanders killed in combat,
including Grand Master Ulrich
von Jungingen and Grand
Marshal Friedrich von Wallenrode. Thousands of troops were reported to have
been slaughtered on either side.[37]
The road to the Teutonic
capital Marienburg now
lay open, the city undefended; but for reasons the sources do not explain,
Władysław hesitated to pursue his advantage.[39] On
17 July, his army began a laboured advance, arriving at Marienburg only on
25 July, by which time the new Grand Master, Heinrich
von Plauen, had organised a defence of the fortress.[40][41] The
apparent half-heartedness of the ensuing siege, called off by Władysław on
19 September, has been ascribed variously to the impregnability of the
fortifications,[40] to
high casualty figures among the Lithuanians, to Władysław's unwillingness to
risk further casualties, or to his desire to keep the Order weakened but
undefeated as to not upset the balance of power between Poland (which would
most likely acquire most of the Order possessions if it was totally
defeated) and Lithuania; but a lack of sources precludes a definitive
explanation.[42][43]
Final years[edit]
Dissent[edit]
Polish and Lithuanian conflict with Teutonic Prussia, 1377–1434.
The war ended in 1411
with the Peace
of Thorn, in which neither Poland nor Lithuania drove home their
negotiating advantage to the full, much to the discontent of the Polish
nobles. Poland regained Dobrzyń
Land, Lithuania regained Samogitia, and Masovia regained a small
territory beyond the Wkra river.
Most of the Teutonic Order's territory, however, including towns which had
surrendered, remained intact. Władysław then proceeded to release many
high-ranking Teutonic Knights and officials for apparently modest ransoms.
The cumulative expense of the ransoms, however, proved a drain on the
Order's resources.[44] This
failure to exploit the victory to his nobles' satisfaction provoked growing
opposition to Władysław's regime after 1411, further fuelled by the granting
of Podolia,
disputed between Poland and Lithuania, to Vytautas, and by the king's
two-year absence in Lithuania.[45]
In an effort to outflank
his critics, Władysław promoted the leader of the opposing faction, bishop Mikołaj
Trąba, to the archbishopric of Gniezno in
autumn 1411 and replaced him in Kraków with Wojciech
Jastrzębiec, a supporter of Vytautas.[45] He
also sought to create more allies in Lithuania. In the Union
of Horodło, signed on 2 October 1413, he decreed that the status of the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania was "tied to our Kingdom of Poland permanently and
irreversibly" and granted the Catholic nobles of Lithuania privileges equal
to those of the Polish szlachta.
The act included a clause prohibiting the Polish nobles from electing a
monarch without the consent of the Lithuanian nobles, and the Lithuanian
nobles from electing a grand duke without the consent of the Polish monarch.[28][46]
Last conflicts[edit]
In 1414, a sporadic new
war broke out, known as the "Hunger
War" from the Knights' scorched-earth tactics
of burning fields and mills; but both the Knights and the Lithuanians were
too exhausted from the previous war to risk a major battle, and the fighting
petered out in the autumn.[45] Hostilities
did not flare up again until 1419, during the Council
of Constance, when they were called off at the papal legate's
insistence.[45]
The Council of Constance
proved a turning point in the Teutonic crusades, as it did for several
European conflicts. Vytautas sent a delegation in 1415, including the metropolitan
of Kiev; and Samogitian witnesses arrived at Constance at the end of
that year to point out their preference for being "baptised with water and
not with blood".[47] The
Polish envoys, among them Mikołaj
Trąba, Zawisza
Czarny, and Paweł
Włodkowic, lobbied for an end to the forced conversion of heathens and
to the Order's aggression against Lithuania and Poland.[48] As
a result of the Polish–Lithuanian diplomacy, the council, though scandalised
by Włodkowic's questioning of the monastic state's legitimacy, denied the
Order's request for a further crusade and instead entrusted the conversion
of the Samogitians to Poland–Lithuania.[49]
The diplomatic context
at Constance included the revolt of the Bohemian Hussites,
who looked upon Poland as an ally in their wars against Sigismund,
the emperor elect and new king of Bohemia. In 1421, the Bohemian Diet
declared Sigismund deposed and formally offered the crown to Władysław on
condition he accept the religious principles of the Four
articles of prague, which he was not prepared to do. After Władysław's
refusal, Vytautas was postulated (elected in absentia) as Bohemian king, but
he assured the pope that he opposed the heretics. Between 1422 and 1428,
Władysław's nephew, Sigismund
Korybut, attempted a regency in war-torn Bohemia, with little success.[50] Vytautas
accepted Sigismund's offer of a royal crown in 1429—apparently with
Władysław's blessing—but Polish forces intercepted the crown in transit and
the coronation was cancelled.[28][51]
In 1422, Władysław
fought another war, known as the Gollub
War, against the Teutonic Order, defeating them in under two months
before the Order's imperial reinforcements had time to arrive. The resulting Treaty
of Melno ended the Knights'
claims to Samogitia once and for all and defined a permanent border between
Prussia and Lithuania. Lithuania was given the province of Samogitia, with
the port of Palanga,
but the city of Klaipėda was
left to the Order.[28] This
border remained largely unchanged for roughly 500 years, until 1920. The
terms of this treaty have, however, been seen as turning a Polish victory
into defeat, as a result of Władysław's renunciation of Polish claims to
Pomerania, Pomerelia, and Chełmno
Land, for which he received only the town of Nieszawa in
return.[52] The
Treaty of Melno closed a chapter in the Knights' wars with Lithuania but did
little to settle their long-term issues with Poland. Further sporadic
warfare broke out between
Poland and the Knights between 1431 and 1435.
100-złoty banknote
featuring Jogaila
Cracks in the
cooperation between Poland and Lithuania after the death of Vytautas in 1430
had offered the Knights a revived opportunity for interference in Poland.
Władysław supported his brother Švitrigaila as
grand duke of Lithuania,[53] but
when Švitrigaila, with the support of the Teutonic Order and dissatisfied
Rus' nobles,[20] rebelled
against Polish overlordship in Lithuania, the Poles, under the leadership of
Bishop Zbigniew
Oleśnicki of Kraków, occupied Podolia,
which Władysław had awarded to Lithuania in 1411, and Volhynia.[28] In
1432, a pro-Polish party in Lithuania elected Vytautas's brother Žygimantas as
grand duke,[53] leading
to an armed struggle over the Lithuanian succession which stuttered on for
years after Władysław's death.[20][28]
Succession[edit]
Władysław's second wife,
Anna of Celje, had died in 1416, leaving a daughter, Jadwiga.
In 1417, Władysław married Elisabeth
of Pilica, who died in 1420 without bearing him a child, and two years
later, Sophia
of Halshany, who bore him two surviving sons. The death in 1431 of
Princess Jadwiga, the last heir of Piast blood, released Władysław to make
his sons by Sophia of Halshany his heirs, though he had to sweeten the
Polish nobles with concessions to ensure their agreement, since the monarchy
was elective. Władysław finally died in 1434, leaving Poland to his elder
son, Władysław
III, and Lithuania to his younger, Casimir,
both still minors at the time.[54][55] The
Lithuanian inheritance, however, could not be taken for granted. His death
in 1434 ended the personal union between the two realms, and it was not
clear what would take its place.[56]
Family tree (incomplete)[edit]
Family tree of Jogaila/Władysław II Jagiello[57][hide]
See also[edit]
-
Jump up^ He
is known under a number of names: Lithuanian: Jogaila
Algirdaitis; Polish: Władysław
II Jagiełło; Belarusian: Jahajła
(Ягайла). See also: Jogaila
(Władysław II Jagiello): names and titles.
-
Jump up^ Anna
Jagiellon, the last member of royal Jagiellon family, died in
1596.
-
Jump up^ Some
historians have called this system a diarchy (Sruogienė-Sruoga
1987; Deveike
1950). However, Rowell suggests that the nature of this dual rule
"...reflects political expediency; it certainly does not meet the
formal definition of diarchy as 'rule by two independent
authorities'...those two leaders were not equal: the grand duke in
Vilnius was supreme" (Rowell
1994, p. 68).
-
Jump up^ The
historian John
Meyendorff suggests
Jogaila may have already been an Orthodox Christian: "In 1377, Olgerd
of Lithuania died, leaving the Grand Principality to his son Jagiello,
an Orthodox Christian..." (Meyendorff
1989, p. 205). Dmitri, however, made it a condition of the
marriage that Jogaila "should be baptized in the Orthodox faith and
that he should proclaim his Christianity to all men" (Dvornik
1992, p. 221).
-
Jump up^ Jadwiga
had actually been crowned king
of Poland (rex
poloni), because the Polish political system made no provision for
a queen
regnant Stone
2001, p. 8).
-
Jump up^ It
"reflects the exceptional far-sightedness of the political elites
ruling both countries" (Kłoczowski
2000, p. 55). It was "a desperate gamble by Jogaila to avert a
seemingly inevitable subjugation" (Lukowski
& Zawadzki 2001, p. 38)
-
Jump up^ A
Slavic name that roughly translates as glorious
rule, Władysław is often Latinised into
either Wladislaus or Ladislaus. The choice evoked both Władysław
I of Poland, the Elbow-high, who was Queen Jadwiga's
great-grandfather and unified the kingdom in 1320, and Saint Ladislaus
I of Hungary, a king who sided with the pope against the emperor Henry
IV and Christianised Transylvania (Rowell
2000, pp. 709–712).
-
Jump up^ Bojtár
2000, p. 182
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c d e f Bojtár
2000, pp. 180–186
-
Jump up^ Anna
Boczkowska, Sarkofag Władysława II Jagiełły i Donatello, Gdańsk 2011,
p. 27.
-
Jump up^ Tęgowski
1999, pp. 124–125
-
Jump up^ Stone
2001, p. 4
-
Jump up^ Plokhy
2006, p. 46
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c d e f Rowell
2000, pp. 709–712
-
Jump up^ Bojtár
2000, p. 181
-
^ Jump
up to:a b Mickūnaitė
1998, p. 157
-
Jump up^ Lukowski
& Zawadzki 2001, p. 42
-
Jump up^ Dvornik
1992, p. 129
-
Jump up^ Lukowski
& Zawadzki 2001, p. 37
-
Jump up^ Lukowski
& Zawadzki 2001, p. 41; Stone
2001, p. 8
-
Jump up^ Sruogienė-Sruoga
1987
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c Kłoczowski
2000, pp. 54–57
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c d e f Jasienica
1988, pp. 80–146
-
Jump up^ Jasienica
1988, pp. 74–80
-
Jump up^ Dvornik
1992, p. 344
-
Jump up^ Magocsi
1996, p. 134
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c Plokhy
2006, p. 98
-
^ Jump
up to:a b Housley
1992, p. 354
-
^ Jump
up to:a b Sedlar
1994, p. 388
-
Jump up^ Turnbull
2004, p. 22
-
Jump up^ Rowell
2000, p. 732
-
Jump up^ Stone
2001, p. 10
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c Dvornik
1992, pp. 222–225
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c Jasienica
1988, pp. 103–105
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c d e f Stone
2001, p. 11
-
Jump up^ New
Cambridge Medieval History, 348.
-
Jump up^ "Śląsk
w polityce Piastów (Silesia within the policies of the Piasts)". Polska
Piastów. 2005. Retrieved 9
August 2006.
-
Jump up^ Karwasińska
& Zakrzewski 1935, p. 21
-
^ Jump
up to:a b Jasienica
1988, pp. 106–107
-
Jump up^ Turnbull
2003, pp. 32–33
-
Jump up^ Delbrück
1990, p. 526
-
Jump up^ Jasienica
1988, p. 108
-
Jump up^ Jasienica
1988, p. 110
-
^ Jump
up to:a b Stone
2001, p. 16
-
Jump up^ Bojtár
2000, p. 182; Turnbull
2003, p. 7
-
Jump up^ Turnbull
2003, p. 7
-
^ Jump
up to:a b Stone
2001, p. 17
-
Jump up^ Turnbull
2003, p. 73
-
Jump up^ Jasienica,,
pp. 113–120
-
Jump up^ Jasienica,,
pp. 113–120
-
Jump up^ New
Cambridge Medieval History, 364.
-
^ Jump
up to:a b c d Jasienica
1988, pp. 121–124
-
Jump up^ Dvornik
1992, pp. 342–343; New
Cambridge Medieval History, 775–6.
-
Jump up^ Housley
1992, p. 361; Rowell
2000, p. 733
-
Jump up^ Kłoczowski
2000, p. 73
-
Jump up^ Housley
1992, pp. 351–361
-
Jump up^ Bideleux
1998, pp. 233–235; Turnbull
& McBride 2004, pp. 11–12
-
Jump up^ New
Cambridge Medieval History, 353.
-
Jump up^ Jasienica
1988, p. 130
-
^ Jump
up to:a b Sruogienė-Sruoga
1987
-
Jump up^ Sedlar
1994, p. 282
-
Jump up^ Rowell
2001, p. 711
-
Jump up^ Stone
2001, p. 22
-
Jump up^ Ryszard
Jurzak, Władysław
II Jagiełło, in Genealogy,
(2006).Retrieved 27 September 2006.
References[edit]
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Bideleux, Robert (1998), A
History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-16111-4
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Bojtár, Endre (2000), Foreword
to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People, translated by
Walter J. Renfroe, Budapest: Central European University Press, ISBN 978-963-9116-42-9
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Delbrück, Hans (1990), The
Barbarian Invasions: History of the Art of War, University of
Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-0-8032-6447-2
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Deveike, Jone (1950), "The Lithuanian Diarchies", The
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Długosz, Jan (1997), The
Annals of Jan Dlugosz, translated and abridged by Maurice Michael,
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Drabina, Jan (1994), "Die
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Dvornik, Francis (1992), The
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Housley, Norman (1992), The
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Karwasińska, Jadwiga & Zakrzewski, Ignacy (1935), Lites
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Kłoczowski, Jerzy (2000), A
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Kosman, Marceli (1987), Jagiełło
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Lukowski, Jerzy & Zawadzki, Hubert (2001), A
Concise History of Poland, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55917-1
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Magocsi, Paul Robert (1996), A
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Meyendorff, John (1989), Byzantium
and the Rise of Russia (Reprint
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Mickūnaitė, Giedrė (1999), "From
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Plokhy, Serhii (2006), The
Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine,
and Belarus, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-86403-9
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Rogalski, Leon (1846), Dzieje
Krzyżaków (History of the Teutonic Knights, Warsaw: Samuel
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Rowell, S. C. (2000), "Baltic Europe", in Jones, Michael, The
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Rowell, S. C. (1994), Lithuania
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Sedlar, Jean W. (1994), East
Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500, Seattle:
University of Washington Press, ISBN 978-0-295-97290-9
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Śląsk w polityce Piastów, Polska Piastów, 2005,
retrieved 9 August 2006 (Polish)
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Sruogienė-Sruoga, Vanda (1987), "Jogaila
(1350–1434)", Lituanus:
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Stone, Daniel Z. (2001), The
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Tęgowski, Jan (1999), Pierwsze
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Turnbull, Stephen (2004), Crusader
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Turnbull, Stephen (2003), Tannenberg
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Turnbull, Stephen & McBride, Angus (2004), The
Hussite Wars: 1419–36, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84176-665-2
External links[edit]
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